4 pics 1 word daily challenge february 17 w017

Many fewer studies have examined the behavioral effects of acute exercise in rodents. The majority of studies that have utilized a single bout of exercise typically examine the effects on neurochemical changes. Therefore, acute exercise, as it is used in humans (e.g., approximately one hour of exercise), is rarely studied in rodents. To maximize results, the majority of rodent studies investigating the effects of physical activity on brain structure and function utilize running protocols typically lasting three weeks or more. Finally, our focus has centered around the effects of acute exercise on behaviors dependent on the prefrontal cortex, mood, and stress responses, but a small collection of literature is starting to reveal that acute exercise may be beneficial on a variety of other brain processes as well, including motor learning and memory dependent on striatal-cortical circuits. Additionally, we have mainly reviewed studies in healthy adults, but have included some discussion of the effects of acute exercise in individuals with various diseases/disorders. For this review, we have primarily focused on aerobic exercise, but have included some studies that utilize resistance exercise. This has led to a diverse set of findings, which are highlighted throughout the manuscript implications for such findings are considered in the discussion. Because of the lack of a general criteria regarding low-, moderate-, and high-intensity aerobic exercise, human studies have utilized a range of acute exercise protocols. Additionally, acute exercise has been shown to enhance affective, mood, and emotional states. A recent set of excellent meta-analyses has detailed a range of behavioral changes, concluding that acute exercise has an overall small positive effect on cognitive functioning, especially in areas of prefrontal cortex-dependent cognition. In addition to the robust literature on the effects of long-term exercise on brain function, a growing literature has also examined the influence of a single bout of exercise, termed “acute exercise”, on human behavior. Indeed, studies in both rodents and humans have shown that long-term exercise is helpful in both delaying the onset of cognitive decline and dementia as well as improving symptoms in patients with an already existing diagnosis. Because of the role of exercise in enhancing neurogenesis and brain plasticity, physical activity may serve as a potential therapeutic tool to prevent, delay, or treat cognitive decline. In some instances, neurodegeneration results in mild cognitive impairment or more severe forms of dementia including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, or Huntington’s disease. As we age, cognitive decline, though not inevitable, is a common occurrence resulting from the process of neurodegeneration.

As well as for improving cognition in children and healthy adults, these long-term effects of exercise are of particular interest for their possible role in improving cognitive function during aging. The most commonly reported area to undergo improvement is the prefrontal cortex, with exercise-induced enhancements observed in attention and other executive functions. In humans, both behavioral and functional imaging approaches have started to identify the neuroanatomical systems modulated by long-term increases in exercise. Studies in rodents have also documented the neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and cellular/molecular changes associated with long-term exposure to exercise. Animal models have focused mainly on the effects of long-term exercise (i.e., weeks to months of increased exercise) on hippocampal function, with special emphasis on exercise-induced adult hippocampal neurogenesis and hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. In particular, abundant data suggest that physical activity can reduce the risk of various neurological diseases and protect the brain from the detrimental effects of aging. The positive influence of exercise on mood and cognition across the lifespan has become a topic of much excitement.

4 pics 1 word daily challenge february 17 w017